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OVERVIEW : Perineum in humans is a diamond-shaped space at the lower end of the trunk between two thighs. The perineum forms the lower end of the pelvis and external genitalia are located in the perineum. In the male perineum, there are two openings one for the digestive system and the other for the urinary and genital system. In females, there are three openings one for the digestive system, one for the urinary system, and one for the genital system. The perineal body is the most important structure in the perineum which supports the reproductive system, especially in females. Unrepaired injury to the perineal body can lead to prolapse of the uterus. BOUNDARIES OF THE PERINEUM : A) Scrotum in the front B) Buttocks in the back C) Inner sides of the thighs on both sides. DIVISIONS OF THE PERINEUM : The perineum is divided into two triangular areas as follows - 1) Anal region: anal region as the name suggests contains the anus or digestive system opening in both males and females. Bounda...

OVERVIEW : The rectum is the last part of the large intestine and is placed between the sigmoid colon above and the anal canal below. Ironically the name comes from Latin rectum intestinal which means a straight line, but the rectum is not curved and is actually curved in front to back direction and also inside to side direction. Distension of the rectum causes the desire to defecate. LOCATION AND EXTENT :  The rectum is located in the posterior part of the pelvis right in front of the sacrum and coccyx. The rectum begins as a continuation of the sigmoid colon at the level of the 3rd sacral vertebra. The rectum ends by becoming continuous with the anal canal at the anorectal region. The anorectal junction lies 2-3 cm in front and a little below the tip of the coccyx. DIMENSIONS : In humans the rectum is 12 cm long, in the upper part, it has the same diameter of 4 cm as of sigmoid colon but in the lower part, it is dilated to form rectal ampulla. COURSE AND DIRECTION : Rectum first ...

 The penis is the external male genital organ that serves the purpose of the male organ of copulation as well as the urinal duct reaching its full size during puberty. PARTS OF PENIS : A) Root - the root of the penis is made of two erectile tissue as follows  1) Crus: They are two in number and are covered by ischiocavernosus muscle. 2) Bulb: it is located between two crura and covered by bulbospongiosus muscle. It is pierced by the urethra to reach the body of the penis and the urethra shows dilation within the bulb called the navicular fossa. B) Body of the penis - it is a continuation of the root of the penis and is completely covered by skin. The body of the penis is made of the three erectile masses and during the erection, these masses become engorged with blood leading to the erection and they are as follows;- 1) Corpora cavernosa: they are two in number and are a continuation of the root of the penis and are located on either side of the corpus spongiosus and they d...

OVERVIEW : The scrotum is the male external genital organ located at the base of the penis next to the upper thighs. It is a dual-chambered sac of skin that contains testicles, the two oval glands responsible for producing and storing sperm. The scrotum is hanging away from the body as it requires a slightly lower temperature for sperm production than the rest of the body. Scrotum also acts as a protective layer for inside structures like the testis and other major blood vessels. The left scrotum hangs a little lower than the right scrotum. In the influence of cold and in young person scrotum is corrugated and closely applied to the testis and in warm conditions and in old person scrotum is elongated and flaccid. STRUCTURE OF SCROTUM : Externally scrotum is divided into right and left parts by a ridge called the perineal raphe which joins with the internal septum of the scrotum. A) Layers of scrotum:- The scrotum is made of the following structures from outside-inwards : 1) Skin - it i...

Overview - Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that is characterized by inflammation of the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis typically affects smaller joints in the initial stages mainly of the hands and feet. It can affect the neck but spare the other parts of the spine and never affect the sacroiliac joints. Rheumatoid arthritis is more common in females with a female: male ratio of 3:1. It can occur at any age but the peak incidence is in a fourth or fifth decade for females and sixth or eighth decade for males. Rheumatoid arthritis is passed on to the generations(genetic) with males being carriers of the disease in many cases. Untreated cases of rheumatoid arthritis can cause joint erosions and consequent disability of the joint. Quick facts about rheumatoid arthritis - 1) Rheumatoid arthritis has no cure. 2)It significantly decreases life expectancy. 3)The exact cause of rheumatoid arthritis is unknown. 4)Rheumatoid arthritis is a genetic disease. 5)Heart di...

mesothelioma treatment mesothelioma can be treated at all stages and there are several treatment options for patients with mesothelioma. though these treatments do not cure the disease but can increase life expectancy and improve the quality of life. combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy is the most common form of mesothelioma treatment. the overall outcome depends on the stage and the type of mesothelioma. mesothelioma treatment by type : 1) pleural mesothelioma: pleural mesothelioma can be treated with 2 surgical options A)Extrapleural pneumectomy: This is a treatment option for early-stage mesothelioma with the most promising results amongst all other surgical options for mesothelioma. hence early diagnosis is a crucial step. this surgery is developed by Dr.David Sugarbaker. SURGERY: 1) Preoprative traetment  chemotherapy with cisplatin and pemetrexed prior to surgery is very effective. combination of these two drugs is more effec...